roman conquest_

2024-08-25 13:41:29

1.Roman invation

2.能否介绍一下英语简史？

3.——of 1066 is perhaps the best-known event in English history, in which William，the

4.He doesn't know____.

roman conquest_

长了点哈：

英语是印欧(1ndo-European)语系。印欧语系是世界上最大的语系，包括欧洲、美洲和亚洲的大部分语言。讲印欧诸种语言的总人数约有十八亿七千五百万，占世界总人口的一半左右。早在1786年，英国梵文（Sanskrit)学者威廉·琼斯爵士(SirWilliamJones)就指出：欧洲、印度、波斯等地的大多数语言，包括古希腊语、古拉丁语及古印度语属于同一“家族”。

原始印欧人是什么样的人?他们居住在何方?他们的语言究竞是什么样子的?对这些问题，我们今天仍缺乏文献的考证。但是通过长时期的研究，语言学家们得出了探索性的结论他们发现：属于印欧语系的许多语种都有表示“冬天”、“雪”和“寒冷”等意义的词，这说明原始印欧语最初是在气候比较冷的地一带使用的。另一方面，某些热带地区动植物名称的词，如“狮子”、“大象”、“稻米”、“竹”、“棕榈树”等，在原始印欧语中是不存在的；而印欧语系各语种中却都有表示“白杨”、“栎树”、“柳树”、“白桦”、“熊”、“狼”、“羊”、“鹰”、“蜜蜂”等动植物名称的相似词。通过这样的探索和研究，许多人认为，当人类进入新石器时代，欧洲中东部曾居隹着一些游牧部落，他们饲养着象羊、狗、奶牛和马这样的家畜，会使用马和简陋的马车，并能够驰骋于一望无际的原野上。这些游牧部落就是原始印欧人，他们用于交际的语言就是原始印欧语。大约在公元前3500年至公元前2500年间，这些原始印欧人开始迁徒。有些向西移动，有些向东移动，而有些则向南移动，到达今天的南亚次大陆。这些部落的大迁徒导致印欧语系的逐步形成。古印度语与古代欧洲语言之所以非常相近，其历史根源即在于此。

印欧语系包括：（一）印度语族(Indic);（二）．伊朗语族(Iranian);(三)斯拉夫语族（Slic）,(四)波罗的话族（Baltic）,（五）日耳曼语族（Germanic）,（六）拉丁语族（亦称罗曼语族[Romance]）,（七）凯尔特语族（Celtic）,（八）希腊语族；（九）阿尔巴尼亚语（Albanian）,（十）亚美尼亚语族（Armenian）,（十一）吐火罗语族（Tocharian;Tokharian）（十二）赫梯语族（Hittite）。日耳曼语族是一个比较大的语族。它又分为三个语支：(一)东日耳曼语支（EastGermanic）主要以现已绝迹的哥特语（Gothic）为代表；（二）北日耳曼语支（NorthGermanic）,主要以古北欧语（OidNorse）为代表，包括今日的挪威语（Norwegian）、冰岛语（Icelandic）、瑞典语和丹麦语等；（三）西日耳曼语支（WestGermanic）包括低地德语（LowGerman）今日的荷兰语（Dutch）、高地德语（HighGerman）、英语、弗里西亚语（Frisian）佛兰芒语（Flemish）等。因此，我们说：英语属于印欧语系的日耳曼语族的西日耳曼语支。

二英语的形成

公元前55年的夏天，罗马帝国的恺撒大帝（JuliusCaesar）在征服高卢（Gaul）之后来到不列颠。那时，他的目的未必是想征服不列颠，而是想警告凯尔特人不要支持那些居住在高占的、正受罗马人奴役的凯尔特同族人。恺撒大帝的这次‘不列颠之行’并没有给罗马帝国带来什么好处，相反却在一定程度上降低了他的威信。第二年，即公元前54年的夏天，恺撒大帝第二次亲临不列颠。这次，他在不列颠岛东南部站稳了脚跟，并与当地的凯尔特人发生了一些冲突。恺撒大帝虽然取胜，但并没有能使凯尔特人屈服。不久，他又回到了高卢；在以后的大约一百年间，罗马帝国并没有对不列颠构成很大的威胁。英国历史上的真正的“罗马人的征服”(RomanConquest)是在公元后43年开始的。当时罗马皇帝克罗迪斯(Claudius)率领四万人马，用了三年时间终于征服了不列颠岛的中部和中南部随后，整个的英格兰被罗马牢牢控制了。，随着军事占领，罗马文化与风格习惯渗入不列颠。罗马人的服装、装饰品、陶器和玻璃器皿很快在不列颠得到推广；社会生活开始：“罗马化”这必然导致拉丁语在不列颠的传播。在以胜利者自居的罗马人看来，凯尔特人无疑是“低贱的”，凯尔特语自然不能登“大雅之堂”那时，在不列颠，官方用语、法律用语、商业用语等均是拉丁语；拉丁语成了上层凯尔特人的第二语言。这就是凯尔特语词汇为什么很少能幸存下来的历史原因。在今日英语中，只是在一些地名和河流名称方面还保留着凯尔特的词汇成分。例如theThames,theCam,theDee,theAvon,theEsk,theExe,theStour,theAire,theDerwent,theOuse,theSevern,theTees,theTrent,theWye等，均是凯尔特人命名的河流。在Duncombe,Winchcombe,Holcome,Cumberland,Coombe等地名中，也可看到凯尔特语cumb(=deepvalley::深谷）一词的成分，在Torcross,Torquay,Torrington等地名中，尚保留着凯尔特语torr(=highrockorpeak;高岩或山顶）一词的成分。英国著名城市多尔佛（Dover）、约克(York)的名称也源于凯尔特语。罗马人占领不列颠长达四百年，直到公元407年，罗马人才因罗马帝国内外交困不得不开始撤离不列颠。

大约在公元449年，居住在西北欧的三个日耳曼部族侵犯不列颠。他们是盎格鲁（Angles）、撒克逊人（Saxons）和朱特人（Jutes）他们乘船横渡北海，借罗马帝国衰落、自顾不暇之机‘一举侵入大不列颠诸岛。他们遭到凯尔特人的顽强抵抗，征服过程拖延了一个半世纪之久：到了公元六世纪末，大不列颠请岛上原先的居民凯尔特人几乎灭绝，幸存者或逃入山林．或沦为奴隶。这就是英国历史上发生的“日耳曼人征服”，亦称“条顿人征服”TeutonicConquest）。这次外来入侵．对英语的形成起了十分关键的作用。

盎格鲁人、撒克逊人和朱特人属古代日耳曼人。分市在北欧日德兰半岛、丹麦诸岛、德国西北沿海一带。在罗马帝国时期，他们往往统称为“蛮族部落”。他们从事畜牧和，过着半游牧的生活，且很早就知道农耕。他们的土地是氏族的公有财产，农业经营带有原始的流动性质。随着社会的发展，氏族公社逐渐解体，出现了氏族贵族和军事首领。他们的财富和权势在频繁的掠夺中剧增。军事首领名义上是由民众大会推选产生的，实际上都出于同一家族。恩格斯曾把这种氏族部落的管理制度称作军事民主制；他这样写道：“其所以称为军事民主制，是因为战争以及进行战争的组织现在已成为民族生活的正常职能。邻人的财富刺激了各民族的贪欲。这些民族把获得财富看成是最重要的生活目的之一。他们是野蛮人。进行掠夺在他们看来是比进行创造性劳动更容易，甚至更荣誉的事情。以前进行战争，只是为了对侵犯进行报复，或者是为了扩大已经感到不够的领上；观在进行战争，则纯粹是为了掠夺，战争成为经常的职业了。“这些所谓的‘蛮族”，在摧毁当时罗马帝国的奴隶制，以及推动西欧封建制度的诞生过程中，起过十分重要的作用。征服不列颠后，盎格鲁人主要占领了洪伯河（theHumber）以北地区；撒克逊人主要占领了泰晤士河以南地区；朱特人主要盘踞在英格兰东南端的肯特（Kent）和南汉普郡（SouthernHampshire）；以及位于英格兰之南、靠近今天的朴次茅斯(Portsmouth)的怀特岛（theIsleofWight），形成许多小国。公元七世纪初，这些小园合并为七个王国：南部有撒克逊人的威塞克斯（Wes）、萨塞克斯(Sus)和埃塞克斯(Es)；东北部和中部有盎格鲁人的梅尔西亚(Mercia)、诺森伯里亚（Northumbria），和东盎格里亚(EastAnglia)；东南部有朱特人的肯特(Kent)王国。各国竞相争雄，达两百年之久；在英国历史上称为“七国时代”(theAnglo-SaxonHeptarchy)。这三个日耳曼部族虽然有各自的方言，但这些方言均属低地西日耳曼语(LowWestGermanic)。有许多共同之处．因此三个部落在语言方面基本上是相通的。他们都使用一种叫做茹尼克（Runic）的文字。这种文字是古代日耳曼各民族通用的文字．它的字母主要由直线组成，以便于刻在木头或石块上，是一种由古希腊语和拉丁语发展起来的北欧碑文字。随着人类社会的发展，盎格鲁人、撒克逊人和朱特人逐渐形成统一的英吉利民族．他们各自使用的方言也逐渐溶合，出现了一种新的语言枣盎格鲁撒克逊语(Anglo-Saxon)。

这就是古英语。它是在特定的地理和历史环境中，经过一系列民族迁移与征服的过程所形成的。

那么English和England的名称是如何来的呢？原来，凯尔特人将征服他们的盎格鲁人、撒克逊人和朱特人习惯地统称为Saxons(撒克逊人)。早期拉丁语学者仿照凯尔特人的习惯．也将这三个日耳曼部族称作Saxones．并将他们征服的不列颠称作Saxonia。到了公元七世纪．由于用森伯利亚王国和梅尔西亚王国在政治上和文化上的影响剧增，而在这棿?ň酉吕吹闹饕?前桓衤橙耍栽缙诶?⊙д哂殖S?/FONT>Angli和Anglia指所有的三个部族和他们在不列颠所占有的地盘。随后,Angli和Anglia在拉丁语著作中分别代替了Saxones和Saxonia。到了公元700年所有的人都把当时通行在不列颠岛上的语言称作Englisc（盎格鲁人一直就是这样称呼其使用的语言的)，三个入侵的日耳曼部族则统称为Angelcynn(=kinoftheAngles即“盎格鲁人的家族”)到了公元1000年整个国家则被称作Englaland(=landoftheAngles盎格鲁人的土地)。由于语言内部在发音和拼写方面发生了演变Englisc和Englaland才变成了今天的English和England。

在追溯英语的历史发展时，我们通常将它分为三个时期：（一）古英语(OldEnglish)，从公元450年至1150年；(二)中古英语(MiddleEnglish)，从公元1150年至1500年；，（三）现代英语(ModernEnglish)，从1500年至今。为便于研究，我们常把1500?/FONT>1700年的英语称作“早期现代英语”(EarlyModernEnglish)，1700年至今的英语称作“后期现代英语”(LaterModernEnglish)。这样的分期当然不是绝对的，但它有助于我们对英语历史发展全过程的了解和研究。

Roman invation

11?1000?15?-8?1066

[3]?p.52[4]?pp.3-5

--?42[5]?7?booklandfolkland?[6]?p.41.pp60-63

-?300--?5?-?

2.?

1066?

-?r.collins?early medieval europe?new york?1999?pp.105-111?f.lot?the end of the ancient world?new york 1931?p.251?alfred p.smyth?medieval europeans?studies in ethnic identity and national perspectives in medieval europe?suffolk.?-

能否介绍一下英语简史？

Roman "invation" = Roman invasion

As you know, there are multiple invasions... The following is the first one. For Caesar's invasion and the Carausian Revolt, please refer to

://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar%27s_invasions_of_Britain

://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carausian_Revolt

Roman conquest of Britain

By AD43, the time of the main Roman invasion of Britain, Britain had already frequently been the target of invasions, planned and actual, by forces of the Roman Republic and Roman Empire. In common with other regions on the edge of the empire, Britain had long enjoyed trading links with the Romans and their economic and cultural influence was a significant part of the British late pre-Roman Iron Age, especially in the south.

Between 55 BC and the 40s AD, the status quo of tribute, hostages, and client states without direct military occupation, begun by Caesar's invasions of Britain, largely remained intact. Augustus prepared invasions in 34 BC, 27 BC and 25 BC. The first and third were called off due to revolts elsewhere in the empire, the second because the Britons seemed ready to come to terms.[1] According to Augustus's Res Gestae, two British kings, Dumnovellaunus and Tincomarus, sent supplications to Rome during his reign, and Strabo's Geography, written during this period, says that Britain paid more in customs and duties than could be raised by taxation if the island were conquered.[2]

By the 40s AD, however, the political situation within Britain was arently in foment. The Catuvellauni had displaced the Trinovantes as the most powerful kingdom in south-eastern Britain, taking over the former Trinovantian capital of Camulodunum (Colchester), and were pressing their neighbours the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Julius Caesar's former ally Commius.[3]

Caligula planned a campaign against the British in 40, but its execution was bizarre: according to Suetonius, he drew up his troops in battle formation facing the English Channel and ordered them to attack the standing water. Afterwards, he had the troops gather sea shells, referring to them as "plunder from the ocean, due to the Capitol and the Palace".[4] Modern historians are unsure if that was meant to be an ironic punishment for the soldiers' mutiny or due to Caligula's derangement. Certainly this invasion attempt readied the troops and facilities that would make Claudius' invasion possible 3 years later (e.g. a lighthouse (Pharos) was built by Caligula at Boulogne-sur-Mer, the model for the one built soon after 43 at Dubris).

[edit] Claudian preparations

Three years later, in 43, possibly by re-collecting Caligula's troops, Claudius mounted an invasion-force to re-instate Verica, an exiled king of the Atrebates.[5] Aulus Plautius, a distinguished senator, was given overall charge of four legions, totalling about 20,000 men, plus about the same number of auxiliaries. The legions were:

Legio II Augusta

Legio IX Hispana

Legio XIV Gemina

Legio XX Valeria Victrix

The II Augusta is known to he been commanded by the future emperor Vespasian. Three other men of ropriate rank to command legions are known from the sources to he been involved in the invasion. Gnaeus Hosidius Geta, who probably led the IX Hispana, and Vespasian's brother Titus Flius Sabinus II are mentioned by Dio Cassius (Dio says that Sabinus was Vespasian's lieutenant, but as Sabinus was the older brother and preceded Vespasian into public life, he could hardly he been a military tribune). Gnaeus Sentius Saturninus is mentioned by Eutropius, although as a former consul he may he been too senior, and perhaps accompanied Claudius later.[6]

[edit] Crossing and landing

Main article: Site of the Claudian invasion of Britain

The main invasion force under Aulus Plautius crossed in three divisions. The port of departure is usually taken to he been Boulogne, and the main landing at Rutupiae (Richborough, on the east coast of Kent). Neither of these locations is certain. Dio does not mention the port of departure, and although Suetonius says that the secondary force under Claudius sailed from Boulogne,[7] it does not necessary follow that the entire invasion force did. Richborough has a large natural harbour which would he been suitable, and archaeology shows Roman military occupation at about the right time. However, Dio says the Romans sailed east to west, and a journey from Boulogne to Richbourough is south to north. Some historians[8] suggest a sailing from Boulogne to the Solent, landing in the vicinity of Noviomagus (Chichester) or Southampton, in territory formerly ruled by Verica. An alternative explanation might be a sailing from the mouth of the Rhine to Richborough, which would be east to west.[9]

[edit] River battles

British resistance was led by Togodumnus and Caratacus, sons of the late king of the Catuvellauni, Cunobelinus. A substantial British force met the Romans at a river crossing thought to be near Rochester on the River Medway. The battle raged for two days. Hosidius Geta was almost captured, but recovered and turned the battle so decisively that he was awarded the ornamenta triumphalia.

The British were pushed back to the Thames. The Romans pursued them across the river causing them to lose men in the marshes of Es. Whether the Romans made use of an existing bridge for this purpose or built a temporary one is uncertain. At least one division of auxiliary Batian troops swam across the river as a separate force.

Togodumnus died shortly after the battle on the Thames. Plautius halted and sent word for Claudius to join him for the final push. Cassius Dio presents this as Plautius needing the emperor's assistance to defeat the resurgent British, who were determined to enge Togodumnus. However, Claudius was no military man, and it is likely that the Catuvellauni were already as good as beaten, allowing the emperor to ear as conqueror on the final march on Camulodunum. Claudius's arch says he received the surrender of eleven kings without any loss[10], and Suetonius says that Claudius received the surrender of the Britons without battle or bloodshed.[11] Cassius Dio relates that he brought war elephants, although no remains of them he been discovered in Britain, and hey armaments which would he overawed any remaining native resistance. Eleven tribes of South East Britain surrendered to Claudius and the Romans prepared to move further west and north. The Romans established their new capital at Camulodunum and Claudius returned to Rome to revel in his victory. Caratacus escaped and would continue the resistance further west.

[edit] 44-60

Vespasian took a force westwards subduing tribes and capturing oppida as he went, going at least as far as Exeter and probably reaching Bodmin.[12] The Ninth Legion was sent north towards Lincoln and within four years of the invasion it is likely that an area south of a line from the Humber to the Severn Estuary was under Roman control. That this line is followed by the Roman road of the Fosse Way has led many historians to debate the route's role as a convenient frontier during the early occupation. It is more likely that the border between Roman and Iron Age Britain was less direct and more mutable during this period however.

Late in 47 the new governor of Britain, Ostorius Scapula began a campaign against the tribes of modern day Wales, and the Cheshire Gap. The Silures of south east Wales caused considerable problems to Ostorius and fiercely defended the Welsh border country. Caratacus himself was defeated in one encounter and fled to the Roman client tribe of the Brigantes who occupied the Pennines. Their queen, Cartimandua was unable or unwilling to protect him however given her own truce with the Romans and handed him over to the invaders. Ostorius died and was replaced by Aulus Gallus who brought the Welsh borders under control but did not move further north or west, probably because Claudius was keen to oid what he considered a difficult and drawn-out war for little material gain in the mountainous terrain of upland Britain. When Nero became emperor in AD 54, he seems to he decided to continue the invasion and ointed Quintus Veranius as governor, a man experienced in dealing with the troublesome hill tribes of Asia Minor. Veranius and his successor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus mounted a successful campaign across Wales, famously destroying the druidical centre at Mona or Anglesey in AD 60. Final occupation of Wales was postponed however when the rebellion of Boudica forced the Romans to return to the south east. The Silures were not finally conquered until circa AD 76 when Sextus Julius Frontinus' long campaign against them began to he success.

[edit] 60-96

Following the successful suppression of Boudica, a number of new Roman governors continued the conquest by edging north. Cartimandua was forced to ask for Roman aid following a rebellion by her husband Venutius. Quintus Petillius Cerialis took his legions from Lincoln as far as York and defeated Venutius near Stanwick around 70. This resulted in the already Romanised Brigantes and Parisii tribes being further assimilated into the empire proper. The new governor in 77 was the famous Gnaeus Julius Agricola. He finished off the Ordovices in Wales and then took his troops north along the Pennines, building roads as he went. He built a fortress at Chester and employed tactics of terrorising each local tribe before offering terms. By 80 he had reached as far as the River Tay, beginning the construction of a fortress at Inchtuthil which would he been the largest in the Roman world at the time if completed. He won a significant victory against the Caledonian Confederacy led by Calgacus at Mons Graupius. It is conventional to give Bennachie in Aberdeenshire as the location of this battle but some recent scholarship also suggests that Moncrieffe in Perthshire was the site. He then ordered his fleet to sail around the north of Scotland to establish that Britain is an island and to receive the surrender of the Orcadians.

Agricola was recalled to Rome by Domitian and seemingly replaced with a series of ineffectual successors who were unable or unwilling to further subdue the far north. The fortress at Inchtuthil was destroyed by fire while still only 40% complete and the other fortifications of the Gask Ridge in Perthshire erected to consolidate the Roman presence in Scotland in the aftermath of Mons Graupius were abandoned within the space of a few years. It is equally likely that the costs of a drawn-out war outweighed any economic or political benefit and it was more profitable to lee the Caledonians alone and only under de jure submission.

[edit] Failure to conquer Scotland

Roman occupation was withdrawn to a line subsequently established as one of the limes of the empire (i.e. a defensible frontier) by the construction of Hadrian's Wall. An attempt was made to push this line north to the River Clyde-River Forth area in 142 when the Antonine Wall was constructed. However, this was once again abandoned after two decades and only subsequently re-occupied on an occasional basis. The Romans retreated to the earlier and stronger Hadrian's Wall in the River Tyne-Solway Firth frontier area, this hing been constructed around 122. Roman troops, however, penetrated far into the north of modern Scotland several more times. Indeed, there is a greater density of Roman marching camps in Scotland than anywhere else in Europe as a result of at least four major attempts to subdue the area. The most notable was in 209 when the emperor Septimus Severus, claiming to be provoked by the belligerence of the Maeatae tribe, campaigned against the Caledonian Confederacy. He used the three legions of the British garrison (augmented by the recently formed 2nd Parthica legion), 9000 imperial guards with calry support, and numerous auxiliaries supplied from the sea by the British fleet, the Rhine fleet and two fleets transferred from the Danube for the purpose. According to Dio Cassius, he inflicted genocidal depredations on the natives and incurred the loss of 50,000 of his own men to the attrition of guerrilla tactics before hing to withdraw to Hadrian's Wall. He repaired and reinforced the wall with a degree of thoroughness that led most subsequent Roman authors to attribute the construction of the wall to him. It was during the negotiations to purchase the truce necessary to secure the Roman retreat to the wall that the first recorded utterance, attributable with any reasonable degree of confidence, to a native of Scotland was made (as recorded by Dio Cassius). When Septimus Severus' wife, Julia Domna, criticised the ual morals of the Caledonian women, the wife of a Caledonian chief, Argentocoxos, replied: "We consort openly with the best of men while you allow yourselves to be debauched in private by the worst". The emperor Septimus Severus died at York while planning to renew hostilities, but these plans were abandoned by his son Caracalla.

Later penetration of modern Scotland by the Romans was generally limited to the scouting expeditions of exploratores in the buffer zone that developed between the walls, trading contacts, bribes to purchase truces from the natives, and eventually the spread of Christianity. The degree to which the Romans interacted with the island of Hibernia is still unresolved amongst archaeologists in Ireland. The successes and failures of the Romans in subduing the peoples of Britain are still represented in the political geography of the British Isles today, with the modern border between Scotland and England running close to the line of Hadrian's Wall.

——of 1066 is perhaps the best-known event in English history, in which William，the

英语的起源

一英语的“家谱”

英语是印欧 (1ndo-European)语系。印欧语系是世界上最大的语系，包括欧洲、美洲和亚洲的大部分语言。讲印欧诸种语言的总人数约有十八亿七千五百万，占世界总人口的一半左右。早在1786年，英国梵文（Sanskrit)学者威廉·琼斯爵士 (Sir William Jones) 就指出：欧洲、印度、波斯等地的大多数语言，包括古希腊语、古拉丁语及古印度语属于同一“家族”。

原始印欧人是什么样的人? 他们居住在何方? 他们的语言究竞是什么样子的? 对这些问题，我们今天仍缺乏文献的考证。但是通过长时期的研究，语言学家们得出了探索性的结论他们发现：属于印欧语系的许多语种都有表示“冬天”、“雪”和“寒冷”等意义的词，这说明原始印欧语最初是在气候比较冷的地一带使用的。另一方面，某些热带地区动植物名称的词，如“狮子”、“大象”、“稻米”、“竹”、“棕榈树”等，在原始印欧语中是不存在的；而印欧语系各语种中却都有表示“白杨”、“栎树”、“柳树”、“白桦”、“熊”、“狼”、“羊”、“鹰”、“蜜蜂”等动植物名称的相似词。通过这样的探索和研究，许多人认为，当人类进入新石器时代，欧洲中东部曾居隹着一些游牧部落，他们饲养着象羊、狗、奶牛和马这样的家畜，会使用马和简陋的马车，并能够驰骋于一望无际的原野上。这些游牧部落就是原始印欧人，他们用于交际的语言就是原始印欧语。大约在公元前3500年至公元前2500年间，这些原始印欧人开始迁徒。有些向西移动，有些向东移动，而有些则向南移动，到达今天的南亚次大陆。这些部落的大迁徒导致印欧语系的逐步形成。古印度语与古代欧洲语言之所以非常相近，其历史根源即在于此。

印欧语系包括：（一）印度语族(Indic);（二）．伊朗语族(Iranian);(三)斯拉夫语族（Slic）,(四)波罗的话族（Baltic）,（五）日耳曼语族（Germanic）,（六）拉丁语族（亦称罗曼语族[Romance]）, （七）凯尔特语族（Celtic）,（八）希腊语族；（九）阿尔巴尼亚语（Albanian）,（十）亚美尼亚语族（Armenian）, （十一）吐火罗语族（Tocharian;Tokharian）（十二）赫梯语族（Hittite）。日耳曼语族是一个比较大的语族。它又分为三个语支：(一)东日耳曼语支（EastGermanic）主要以现已绝迹的哥特语（Gothic）为代表；（二）北日耳曼语支（North Germanic）,主要以古北欧语（Oid Norse）为代表，包括今日的挪威语（Norwegian）、冰岛语（Icelandic）、瑞典语和丹麦语等；（三）西日耳曼语支（West Germanic）包括低地德语（Low German）今日的荷兰语（Dutch）、高地德语（High German）、英语、弗里西亚语（Frisian）佛兰芒语（Flemish）等。因此，我们说：英语属于印欧语系的日耳曼语族的西日耳曼语支。

二英语的形成

英国南面隔英吉利海峡（the English Channel）、多佛尔海峡（the Straits of Dover）与法国相望，东面和东南面隔北海(the North Sea)与荷兰、比利时、丹麦、挪威遥对。距欧洲大陆最窄处的多佛尔海峡仅三十公里宽。英国的领土主要包括大不列颠岛和爱尔兰岛东北部。大不列颠岛包括三个地区：英格兰占南部和中部，威尔士占西部山地半岛，苏格兰占北部；其中以英格兰最为重要。大不列颠岛是欧洲第一大岛，海岸非常曲折，长达一万一千四百五十公里。英语就是在这样的地理环境中形成的。为了说明英语的起源，我们有必要回顾一下英语形之前的英国史前史。文物考查已经证明，古代印欧游牧部落西移之前今天的不列颠诸岛上已居住着旧石器人(Paleolithic Man)。那时，不列颠诸岛和欧洲大陆是连成一片的，英国和法国之间还没有今天的英吉利海峡和多佛尔海峡，莱茵河(the Rhine)与泰晤士河(the Thames)之间尚由其支流相接、今天的英国仍属欧洲大陆的一部分。大约在距今九千年的时候；由于地壳的变迁，大不列颠诸岛从欧洲大陆分离出来。所以史前的旧石器人能够在不列颠定居下来并不足为怪。曾任过英国首相的温斯顿·邱召尔Sir Winston Churchill）(1874?/FONT>1965)在其《说英语的民族史》（History of the English Speaking Peoples）一书中，曾这样描写居住在不列颠的旧石器人：很明显，那些赤身或只披着兽皮的男人和女人或觅食于原始密林之中，或涉猎于沼泽、草滩至于他们所说的语言，尚无史料可查。大约在公元前3000年，伊比利亚人（Iberians）从地中海地区来到不列颠岛定居。他们给不列颠带来了新石器（Neolithic）文化，同时征服了先前在那儿居住的旧石器人。大约从公元前500年开始，凯尔特人；（Celts）从欧洲大陆进犯并占领了不列颠诸岛。凯尔特人最初居住在今天德国南部地区，他们是欧洲最早学会制造和使用铁器和金制装饰品的民族；在征服不列颠之前，他们曾征服了今天的法国、西班牙：葡萄牙、意大利等地区；来到不列颠后，一部分凯尔特人在今天的爱尔兰和苏格兰定居下来，其余的一部分占领了今天的英格兰的南部和东部。每到一处，他们都对伊比利亚人进行残酷的杀戳。凯尔特人讲凯尔特语。今天居住在苏格兰北部和西部山地的盖尔人（Gaels）仍使用这种语言。在英语形成之前凯尔特语是在不列颠岛上所能发现的唯一具有史料依据的最早的格言。公元前55年的夏天，罗马帝国的恺撒大帝（Julius Caesar）在征服高卢（Gaul）之后来到不列颠。那时，他的目的未必是想征服不列颠，而是想警告凯尔特人不要支持那些居住在高占的、正受罗马人奴役的凯尔特同族人。恺撒大帝的这次‘不列颠之行’并没有给罗马帝国带来什么好处，相反却在一定程度上降低了他的威信。第二年，即公元前54年的夏天，恺撒大帝第二次亲临不列颠。这次，他在不列颠岛东南部站稳了脚跟，并与当地的凯尔特人发生了一些冲突。恺撒大帝虽然取胜，但并没有能使凯尔特人屈服。不久，他又回到了高卢；在以后的大约一百年间，罗马帝国并没有对不列颠构成很大的威胁。英国历史上的真正的“罗马人的征服”(Roman Conquest)是在公元后43年开始的。当时罗马皇帝克罗迪斯(Claudius)率领四万人马，用了三年时间终于征服了不列颠岛的中部和中南部随后，整个的英格兰被罗马牢牢控制了。，随着军事占领，罗马文化与风格习惯渗入不列颠。罗马人的服装、装饰品、陶器和玻璃器皿很快在不列颠得到推广；社会生活开始：“罗马化”这必然导致拉丁语在不列颠的传播。在以胜利者自居的罗马人看来，凯尔特人无疑是“低贱的”，凯尔特语自然不能登“大雅之堂”那时，在不列颠，官方用语、法律用语、商业用语等均是拉丁语；拉丁语成了上层凯尔特人的第二语言。这就是凯尔特语词汇为什么很少能幸存下来的历史原因。在今日英语中，只是在一些地名和河流名称方面还保留着凯尔特的词汇成分。例如the Thames ,the Cam,the Dee ,the Avon , the Esk , the Exe , the Stour , the Aire , the Derwent , the Ouse , the Severn , the Tees , the Trent , the Wye等，均是凯尔特人命名的河流。在Duncombe, Winchcombe, Holcome, Cumberland, Coombe 等地名中，也可看到凯尔特语cumb (=deep valley::深谷）一词的成分，在Torcross , Torquay,Torrington等地名中，尚保留着凯尔特语torr (=high rock or peak;高岩或山顶）一词的成分。英国著名城市多尔佛（Dover）、约克(York)的名称也源于凯尔特语。罗马人占领不列颠长达四百年，直到公元407年，罗马人才因罗马帝国内外交困不得不开始撤离不列颠。

大约在公元449年，居住在西北欧的三个日耳曼部族侵犯不列颠。他们是盎格鲁（Angles）、撒克逊人（Saxons）和朱特人（Jutes）他们乘船横渡北海，借罗马帝国衰落、自顾不暇之机‘一举侵入大不列颠诸岛。他们遭到凯尔特人的顽强抵抗，征服过程拖延了一个半世纪之久：到了公元六世纪末，大不列颠请岛上原先的居民凯尔特人几乎灭绝，幸存者或逃入山林．或沦为奴隶。这就是英国历史上发生的“日耳曼人征服”，亦称“条顿人征服”Teutonic Conquest）。这次外来入侵．对英语的形成起了十分关键的作用。

盎格鲁人、撒克逊人和朱特人属古代日耳曼人。分市在北欧日德兰半岛、丹麦诸岛、德国西北沿海一带。在罗马帝国时期，他们往往统称为“蛮族部落”。他们从事畜牧和，过着半游牧的生活，且很早就知道农耕。他们的土地是氏族的公有财产，农业经营带有原始的流动性质。随着社会的发展，氏族公社逐渐解体，出现了氏族贵族和军事首领。他们的财富和权势在频繁的掠夺中剧增。军事首领名义上是由民众大会推选产生的，实际上都出于同一家族。恩格斯曾把这种氏族部落的管理制度称作军事民主制；他这样写道：“其所以称为军事民主制，是因为战争以及进行战争的组织现在已成为民族生活的正常职能。邻人的财富刺激了各民族的贪欲。这些民族把获得财富看成是最重要的生活目的之一。他们是野蛮人。进行掠夺在他们看来是比进行创造性劳动更容易，甚至更荣誉的事情。以前进行战争，只是为了对侵犯进行报复，或者是为了扩大已经感到不够的领上；观在进行战争，则纯粹是为了掠夺，战争成为经常的职业了。“ 这些所谓的‘蛮族”，在摧毁当时罗马帝国的奴隶制，以及推动西欧封建制度的诞生过程中，起过十分重要的作用。征服不列颠后，盎格鲁人主要占领了洪伯河（the Humber）以北地区；撒克逊人主要占领了泰晤士河以南地区；朱特人主要盘踞在英格兰东南端的肯特（Kent）和南汉普郡（Southern Hampshire）；以及位于英格兰之南、靠近今天的朴次茅斯(Portsmouth)的怀特岛（the Isle of Wight），形成许多小国。公元七世纪初，这些小园合并为七个王国：南部有撒克逊人的威塞克斯（Wes）、萨塞克斯(Sus)和埃塞克斯(Es)；东北部和中部有盎格鲁人的梅尔西亚(Mercia)、诺森伯里亚（Northumbria），和东盎格里亚(East Anglia)；东南部有朱特人的肯特(Kent)王国。各国竞相争雄，达两百年之久；在英国历史上称为“七国时代”(the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy)。这三个日耳曼部族虽然有各自的方言，但这些方言均属低地西日耳曼语(Low West Germanic)。有许多共同之处．因此三个部落在语言方面基本上是相通的。他们都使用一种叫做茹尼克（Runic）的文字。这种文字是古代日耳曼各民族通用的文字．它的字母主要由直线组成，以便于刻在木头或石块上，是一种由古希腊语和拉丁语发展起来的北欧碑文字。随着人类社会的发展，盎格鲁人、撒克逊人和朱特人逐渐形成统一的英吉利民族．他们各自使用的方言也逐渐溶合，出现了一种新的语言枣盎格鲁撒克逊语(Anglo-Saxon)。这就是古英语。它是在特定的地理和历史环境中，经过一系列民族迁移与征服的过程所形成的。

那么English和England的名称是如何来的呢？原来，凯尔特人将征服他们的盎格鲁人、撒克逊人和朱特人习惯地统称为Saxons(撒克逊人)。早期拉丁语学者仿照凯尔特人的习惯．也将这三个日耳曼部族称作Saxones．并将他们征服的不列颠称作Saxonia。到了公元七世纪．由于用森伯利亚王国和梅尔西亚王国在政治上和文化上的影响剧增，而在这棿?ň酉吕吹闹饕?前桓衤橙耍?栽缙诶?⊙д哂殖S?/FONT>Angli和Anglia指所有的三个部族和他们在不列颠所占有的地盘。随后,Angli和Anglia在拉丁语著作中分别代替了Saxones和Saxonia。到了公元700年所有的人都把当时通行在不列颠岛上的语言称作Englisc（盎格鲁人一直就是这样称呼其使用的语言的)，三个入侵的日耳曼部族则统称为Angelcynn(=kin of the Angles即“盎格鲁人的家族”)到了公元1000年整个国家则被称作Englaland (=land of the Angles盎格鲁人的土地)。由于语言内部在发音和拼写方面发生了演变Englisc和Englaland才变成了今天的English和England。

在追溯英语的历史发展时，我们通常将它分为三个时期：（一）古英语(Old English)，从公元450年至1150年；(二)中古英语(Middle English)，从公元1150年至1500年；，（三）现代英语(Modern English)，从1500年至今。为便于研究，我们常把1500?/FONT>1700年的英语称作“早期现代英语”(Early Modern English)，1700年至今的英语称作“后期现代英语”(Later Modern English)。这样的分期当然不是绝对的，但它有助于我们对英语历史发展全过程的了解和研究。

He doesn't know____.

答案C

可参考《英语国家社会与文化入门》高教版，朱永涛，王立礼主编第6页

“The next invaders were the Normans, from northern France, who were descendants of Vikings. Under William of Normandy (Known as "William of the Conqueror") they crossed the English Channel in 1066 and in the Battle of Hastings, defeated an English army under King Harold. This marks the last time that an army from outside the British Isles succeeded in invading.”

A The Roman Conquest 发生在43AD-410AD，统治近400年，其中包括55-54B.C. General Caesar invaded Great Britain twice.

B. The Anglo-Saxon Conquest 发生在5 century-7century ，建立了“Heptarchy”（七国时代）

D.The Celt Conquest 发生在700BC， Celtic people immigrated from Rhine of Europe and mixed living with Liberians.

He doesn't know what to do today。1.英语形成时期

公元前1世纪，罗马征服了欧洲大陆的高卢，

开始和日尔曼民族接触，从这时起到公元5世

纪中叶日尔曼民族入侵不列颠止，罗马军队和

罗马商人在欧洲大陆上和日尔曼有过不少交

往，所以这一时期也被叫做大陆时期。在这期

间，盎格鲁人（Angles)、撒克逊人（Saxons)、

朱特人(Jutes)和其它居住在欧洲大陆上的日

尔曼民族一样，吸收了一些拉丁语词。这些词